step into a history past

step into history

Stairs of chandi Borobudur through the arches of  giant Kala Makara decoration.
Source: Guiding Technique Chandi Borobudur arisguide

There was not once of a written document, it had been spoken on the construction of a temple called Chandi Borobudur. But the references were to whom the authority it had built and the purpose for which Borobudur was written stood for.The inscriptions carved above the reliefs on the ‘hidden base’ of the monument, is that Chandi Borobudur built between the last quarter of the eighth century and the first decades of the ninth.

This assumption accords quite well with Indonesian history in general and the history of Central Java in particular. The 750 – 850 periods were the Golden Age of the Syailendra dynasty. It produced a great number of monuments, which are found all over the plains and the mountain slopes of Central Java. Siva sanctuaries predominate in the mountain regions; in the plains of Kedu and Prambanan, both Sivaite and Buddhist monuments were erected close together.

The name Sanjaya appears once again in the Mantyasih charter of 907 A.D., found some 15 kilometers north of Chandi Borobudur, which is unusual in that it contains a list of kings preceding the reigning King Balitung (who issued the charter). Though no account is given of the genealogical relations, the kings listed were apparently successive rulers of one and the same kingdom. The list of kings starts with Sanjaya; obviously the founder of the dynasty. His immediate successor was Rakai Panangkaran, who was associated with the foundation of the Buddhist temple of Kalasan, as it is shown by the Kalasan charter of 778 A.D.

sanskrit 
Source: Guiding Technique Chandi Borobudur arisguide.

The Syailendras are known to have been ardent followers of the Lord Buddha, but in the Sojomerto's inscription was a Hindu. In the charter of Mantyasih is also mentioned the followers of Hindu. It could be assumed that the other kings listed were all followers of the Hindu religion. Many scholars believed that two dynasties ruled over Central Java in the second half of the eighth century were the Sivaite Sanjaya dynasty and the Buddhist Syailendra.

According to this theory, Rakai Panangkaran was a Sanjaya king whose contribution to the foundation of the Buddhist sanctuary of Kalasan. Religion has never been a source of any serious conflicts in Indonesia. As far as Rakai Panangkaran is concerned, it is more likely that his involvement in the foundation of Chandi Kalasan was an indication that a change in the official religion had taken place. As if to justify this change, he traced back his ancestry to Sailendra and introduced the denomination Sailendra wangsa (wangsa = dynasty).

This assumption fits with what king Balitung did in his Mantyasih charter. Even though he did not use the appellation ‘Sanjaya – wangsa’, he demonstrated the re-establishment of Hinduism as the official religion by enumerating his predecessors and proclaiming that the ardent Siva worshipper Sanyaya was his forefather. The opinion is that the Sailendras were of foreign origin. They come either from South India or from Indo – China. Since the Java Sea provides the easiest access to Central Java, they might have been expected to settle in the northern regions.

However, is difficult to reconcile with the fact that the Syailendras emerged in history in the southern part of Central Java, whereas the earlier native Sanyayas had their territory farther north. Even the oldest Hindu kingdom of Kutei in East Kalimantan (fifth century A.D.) was from the very beginning ruled by a native. King Mulawarman, who issued seven pillar edicts in Sanskrit, stated that he was a son of Asvavarman who in his turn was a son of Kundungga. On the other hand, starting with his son, the new religion apparently obtained a foothold in the court. It is explicitly stated in the Kutei edicts.

To ensure the proper performance of religious ceremonies, Brahmans from a far were invited. The main deity to whom homage was paid, Vaprakesvara who despite the Sanskrit sound, was alien to the Hindu pantheon as taught in India. An Indonesian settlement at Nalanda is known from an Indian charter of the ninth century. The royal edicts seem to suggest the sudden emergence of individual kingdoms. However, the involvement of a native forefather in the genealogy of the reigning king can be taken to reflect a transition of power; for it is inconceivable that the kingdoms could come into existence without a considerable prior period of acculturation.

Borobudur viewed from the east.
Source: Guiding Technique Chandi Borobudur arisguide

Borobudur's environment

The region around the ‘Nail of Java’, better known as the ‘Kedu Plain’, forms the geographical center of the island. Its so fertility, and  industrious population, explain why it is often called " the Garden of Java ".

The undulating plain is bordered on practically all sides by rugged mountain ranges. And as if to beautify the landscape, two sets of twin volcanoes soar into the sky: the Merapi (2911m) and the Merbabu (3142m) at the northeast, and the Sumbing (3371m) and the Sindoro (3135m) at the north – west. The Merapi is now active and the small eruptions occur every two or three years. The western and the southern sides of  the plain are closed by a long chain of hills, that form a rugged skyline of towering masses of indefinite shape. Hence the denomination ‘Menoreh range’ (menoreh stands for ‘menara’ and means ‘tower’). 

In the history past, the island of Java was floating in the ocean, it had to be nailed to the center of the earth before inhabited. It's a small hill, called Tidar, at the southern outskirts of the present city of Magelang. And only some fifteen kilometers south of Tidar hill is Chandi Borobudur situated.

Chandi Borobudur view from the northwest, the monument was mentioned in Karangtengah and Tri Tepusan inscription. Source: Guiding Technique Chandi Borobudur arisguide.

The south - eastern corner of the plain, the only one is not blocked by a mountain range; at this point, the Menoreh chain bends southwards before reaching the foot of the Merapi. And it is througuh this passage that the waters of the Kedu region leave the plain and flow to the Indian Ocean. The Kedu plain is intersected by the two main rivers of the region: the Progo and the Elo. Both run nearly parallel from north to south, forcing their way through narrow but deep trenches.

A considerable number of the Kedu plain monuments were founded here. Hindu and Buddhist sanctuaries were packed together within a radius of less than three kilometers from the point where the two Kedu rivers meet. From west to east, the main Buddhist monuments of the area are: Chandi Borobudur, Chandi Pawon, Chandi Mendut, and Chandi Ngawen compound which consists of five structures. 

Borobudur World Heritage 
Source: Guiding Technique Chandi Borobudur arisguide

the three sanctuaries

The first three sanctuaries are assumed to have formed one compound also; though standing at a considerable distance from each other, a straight line drawn from Chandi Borobudur to Chandi Mendut through Chandi Pawon suggests the unity of the triad. This kind of lay - out is not to be found at Borobudur. According to oral tradition the triad was once linked by a paved processional path, flanked by richly decorated balustrades.

The exceptional composition of the triad has led to much speculation about the relation between Chandi Borobudur, Chandi Pawon and Chandi Mendut. The most plausible link is religious, if the denomination ‘compound’ is interpreted in a particular way; the three monuments can be taken as a whole to represent one religious conception.

the paved processional path. 
Source: Guiding Technique Chandi Borobudur arisguide

Chandi Borobudur has no inner space, no place where devotees could worship. Most likely it is a place of pilgrimage, where Buddhists can seek after the Highest Wisdom. The passages all around the edifice, successively mounting to the upper most terraces, are evidently meant for ritual circumambulations. Guided and instructed by the narrative reliefs, the pilgrim proceeds from one terrace to another in silent contemplation.

Chandi Mendut is seemed a place of worship. The Buddha is represented by a formidable monolith, seated with hanging legs on a throne and flanked by the accompanying Boddhisattvas Avalokitesvara and Vajrapani. The depiction of the Buddha preaching the first sermon in the deer – park at Sarnath is apparently meant to recall right conduct in life to those who seek their refuge in the Compassionate Buddha.

Chandi Pawon also has an inner space, but it does not reveal what deity might have been the object of worship. It is impossible to say what was the function of the temple in relation to Chandi Mendut or to Chandi Borobudur?. The pilgrim had to pass Chandi Pawon as his way from Chandi Mendut to Chandi Borobudur along the paved processional path might suggest that Chandi Pawon was a kind of station on the long journey; after being purified through the required ceremonies of worship at Chandi Mendut, Chandi Pawon allowed to pause and reflect before proceeding on the pilgrimage to Chandi Borobudur where attire some series of circumambulations awaited.

The monument Chandi Borobudur

Monuments dating back to the ancient period of Indonesian history are commonly called chandi, irrespective of what they were originally meant for. They thus include not only temple buildings, but such things as gates and bathing – places.

Straight - line arrangement of Chandi Mendut is some three kilometers from Chandi Borobudur, while Chandi Pawon is half that distance away.
Source: Guiding Technique Chandi Borobudur arisguide

A narrow corridor with reliefs on the wall.
Source: Guiding Technique Chandi Borobudur arisguide

Chandi Borobudur or Barabudur  is a 9th – century Mahayana Buddhist temple, which consists of nine stacked platforms, six square and three circular, topped by a central dome, surrounded by 72 stupas and decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statue.
Source: Guiding Technique Chandi Borobudur arisguide

Built in the 9th century during the reign of  the Syailendra Dynasty, the temple was designed in Javanese Buddhist architecture, which blends the Indonesian indigenous culture of ancestor worship and the Buddhist concept of attaining Nirvana. The temple also demonstrates the influences of Gupta art that reflects India's influence on the region, to make chandi Borobudur uniquely Indonesian.

The central dome is surrounded by 72 Budha statues, one seated inside a stupa. 
Source: Guiding Technique Chandi Borobudur arisguide

The monument is both belonging to the shrine of the Lord Buddha and the place for Buddhist pilgrimage. Its journey for the pilgrims begins at the base and follows a path around the monument and ascends  to the top through three levels symbolic of Buddhist cosmology: Kamadhatu (the world of desire), Rupadhatu (the world of forms) and Arupadhatu (the world of formlessness). The temple guides the pilgrims through an extensive system of stairways and corridors, views with 1,460 narrative relief panels on the walls and the balustrades. Borobudur has the largest and most complete ensemble of Buddhist reliefs in the world.

the largest Buddhist temple in the world. 
Source: Guiding Technique Chandi Borobudur arisguide

The history mentioned that Borobudur was constructed in the 9th century and abandoned following the 14th-century decline of Hindu kingdoms in Java and the Javanese conversion to Islam. Worldwide knowledge of its existence was sparked in 1814 by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, then the British ruler of Java, who was advised of its location by native Indonesians.

The largest restoration project was undertaken between 1973 and 1983 by the Indonesian government and UNESCO.
Source: Guiding Technique Chandi Borobudur arisguide

Chandi Borobudur has since been preserved through several restorations. The largest restoration project was undertaken between 1973 and 1983 by the Indonesian government and UNESCO, the monument was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Source: Guiding Technique Chandi Borobudur arisguide

The missing stone maintenance
Source: Guiding Technique Chandi Borobudur arisguide

Its left behind

Chandi Borobudur lay hidden for centuries under layers of volcanic ash and jungle growth. The facts behind its abandonment remain a mystery. It is not known when active use of the monument and Buddhist pilgrimage to it ceased.

Sometime between 928 and 1006, King Mpu Sindok moved  the capital of the Medang Kingdom to the region of East Java after a series of volcanic eruptions; it is not certain whether this influenced the abandonment, but several sources mention this as the most likely period of abandonment.

The monument is mentioned vaguely in the year 1365, written in the book Mpu Prapanca's Nagarakretagama, during the Majapahit era and mentioning "the vihara in Budur". Soekmono (1976) also mentions  the popular belief that the temples were disbanded when the population converted to Islam in the 15th century.

Chandi Borobudur was left to its fate several centuries, regardless at which the chandi lost their significance in a changed society, they had in any case to be rediscovered one by one before our present knowledge of them could begin to accumulate. But they have never been completely lost to the people’s memory. In some way the glorious past and the monuments that witnessed to it were remembered, and especially by the villagers who lived nearby. The chandis still play a part in their daily life.

The change in belief led of course to a gradual change in their attitude towards the monuments, evident in the way people ignored them. However, in difference was not the main explanation.

A mysterious fear replaced the old understanding, It came to the monument  the fear which predominates in any approach to the unknownm then.  Superstitious beliefs gradually associated the obscure ruins with bad luck and misery. Chandi Borobudur offers a good example of what it means to become the victim of such beliefs. Javanese chronicles of the eighteenth century mention two cases of bad luck associated with the monument.

According to the Babad Tanah Jawi (History of the Island of Java) Borobudur hill proved fatal to a rebel who made a stand there when he revolted against the king of Mataram in 1709 A.D. The hill was be sieged, and the insurgent was defeated. He was brought as a captive before the king, who sentenced him to death. Even though there is no written record of who built the temple first, it is believed that Borobudur Temple was built between AD 780 and 840 when the Sailendra dynasty ruled the region.

The Babad Mataram (History of the Kingdom of Mataram) related the bad luck of the crown prince of the Sultanate of Yogyakarta in 1757. In spite of the prevailing restrictions on visiting, he took on ‘the knight who was captured in a cage’ (the statue in one of the perforated stupas) that he could not see his‘unfortunate friend’. As soon as   he was back at the palace, died after a one-day illness. It was not until 1814 that Chandi Borobudur emerged, actually and figuratively, from its dark past.

Rediscovery

Between 1811 and 1816 Java was under British rule. The representative of the British Government was Lieutenant Governor – General Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, who was extremely interested in Java’s past. In 1814, on an inspection tour in Semarang, he was informed of the existence of a monument, called Chandi Borobudur, in the village Bumisegoro near Magelang.

He sent Cornelius, a Dutch engineer officer who had experience in exploring antiquities in Java, to investigate. Cornelius employed some 200 villagers to fell trees, burn down bushes, and dig away the earth and rubbish in which the monument had been buried. In two months he had completed the work, though many parts of the galleries could not be unearthed because of the danger of collapse.

The two volumes of his History of Java which appeared in 1817 devoted only a few sentences to the monument. The chapter on the antiquities is very brief, as he intended to publish separately an “Account of the Antiquities” the credit of Raffles to have rescued Chandi Borobudur from oblivion, and to have brought it  to the notice of a wide range of people.
Source: Guiding Technique Chandi Borobudur
arisguide

The Dutch administrator of the Kedu region, Hartmann, was in authority who paid special attention to Chandi Borobudur, arranged for the further removal of the debris and the cleaning of the galleries, so by 1835, the entire monument was freed from its last disfiguring cover. It is a great pity that he wrote no account of his activities, so that what is known about them can only be derived from later reports. It is particularly to be regretted that the story about his alleged discovery of a stone Buddha in the main stupa has led to endless dispute. In 1842 Hartmann made a thorough investigation towards the interior of the big dome. What he actually found is unknown, but Wilsen’s report of 1853 mentions a Buddha one of the hundreds of statues. No such statue was ever mentioned by investigators before 1842.

The story went round that the statue was one placed by the native district officer in order to satisfy the Dutch administrator. He was interested in Chandi Borobudur personally rather than as a government official, but Wilsen was an engineer officer sent by the Government to make drawings of the architectural details of the reliefs.

Chandi Borobudur in 1872 
Source: Guiding Technique Chandi Borobudur arisguide

The Government designated another scholar and chosen Leemans in 1859, to use the manuscripts of both Wilsen and Brumund’s study and compile a monograph that be supplemented by Wilsen’s drawings. At last appeared in print in 1873 ( followed by a French translation in 1874 ), all the material available on Chandi Borobudur was at the disposal of the general public. Information was provided on every detail of the monument, and Chandi Borobudur could never again disappear into oblivion.

In 1896 King Chulalongkorn of Siam visited Java and requested and was allowed to take home eight cartloads of sculptures taken from Borobudur. These include thirty pieces taken from a number of relief panels, five Buddha images, two lions, and one gargoyle, several kala motifs from the stairs and gateways, and a guardian statue (dvarapala). Several of these artifacts, most notably the lions, dvarapala, kala, makara and giant water spouts are now on display in the Java Art room in The National Museum in Bangkok.

The Government meanwhile appointed Brumund to make a detailed description, which he completed in 1856. Brumund thought his study would be published and supplemented by Wilsen’s draLwings. The Government intended the official publication to be based on Wilsen’s articles and drawings, with Brumund’s study as a supplement.

Borobudur's stupa in the middle 9 century Source: Guiding Technique Chandi Borobudur arisguide

restoration Borobudur's

Until the middle of the nineteenth century, concern for Chandi Borobudur was confined to amateurs. Investigations and excavations were mostly carried out because of someone’s personal interest or an eagerness to know more about what was still kept hidden by the rubbish. Government interest dates from 1849. Wilsen was sent to make accurate scale – drawings of the reliefs. A few years later Brumund was designated to prepare an extensive description of the monument. This work was to be followed next by a monograph embodying all the details of Chandi Borobudur and the results of the various studies made.

In the year (1873), Van Kinsbergen, an excellent art photographer, was invited to photograph parts of the sculptures which were of exceptional quality. He had first to remove earth and shrubs before he could even start selecting vantage points for his equipment. In 1882 a proposal to demolish the monument and remove the reliefs to a museum was submitted to the Government. This was considered to oradical. Instead, the Government appointed an archaeologist (Groeneveldt) to make a thorough investigation  on the site and assess members were Van Erp, an army engineer officer, and Van de Kamer, a construction engineer in the Department of Public Works.

the restoration of chhatra Pinnacle 
Source: Guiding Technique Chandi Borobudur arisguide

chhatra Pinnacle 
Source: Guiding Technique Chandi Borobudur arisguide

Van de Kamer had earlier become known for his fantastic plan to shelter Chandi Borobudur from rain and sunshine by constructing a huge umbrella over it, made of galvanized iron plates and supported by 40 iron pillars, and estimated cost of 135,000 Dutch guilders.

In 1885, the Chairman of the Archaeological Society  in Yogyakarta, Yzerman, discovered the hidden reliefs at the base of the temple. These hidden reliefs revealed some Sanskrit instructions left for the carver, with  very distinctive8 lettering that uncovered the date of  the construction of the temple: the middle of the 9 century, the time when Syailendra dynasty ruled the area.

In 1902 the Commission submitted a three fold plan. First, the immediate dangers should be averted by resetting the corners, removing stones that endangered adjacent parts, straightening the first balustrade, and restoring several archways, niches, stupas and the main dome. Secondly, the improvements so obtained should be consolidated by fencing off the courtyard, providing proper maintenance and, above all, by making the water drains really effective and restoring the floors and spouts. Thirdly, all loose stones should be removed, the monument cleared up to the first balustrade, disfiguring additions also removed, and the spire of the big dome should be restored.

The restoration then was carried out between 1907 and 1911, using the principles of anastylosis and led by Theodor van Erp. The first seven months of restoration were occupied with excavating the grounds around the monument to find missing Buddha heads and panel stones. Van Erp dismantled and rebuilt the upper three circular platforms and stupas. Along the way, Van Erp discovered more things he could do to improve the monument; which was approved with the additional cost of 34,600 guilders.

Chandi Borobudur after Van Erp’s restoration in 1911. Note the reconstructed chhatra Pinnacle on top of  the main stupa (now dismantled). 
Source: Guiding Technique Chandi Borobudur arisguide

Van Erp went further by carefully reconstructing the chhatra (three - tiered parasol) pinnacle on top of the main stupa. However, he later dismantled  the chhatra, citing that there were not enough original stones used in reconstructing the pinnacle, which means that the original design of Borobudur's pinnacle is actually unknown. The restoration had been primarily focused on cleaning the sculptures, and Van Erp did not solve the drainage problem. Within fifteen years, the gallery walls were sagging, and the reliefs showed signs of new cracks and deterioration. Van Erp used concrete from which alkali salts and calcium hydroxides leached and were transported into the rest of the construction.

During World War II and Indonesian National Revolution in 1945 to 1949, Borobudur restoration efforts were halted. The monument suffered further from the weather and drainage problems, which caused the earth core inside the temple to expand, pushing the stone structure and tilting the walls.

In 1965, Indonesia asked the UNESCO for advice on ways to counteract the problem of weathering at Borobudur and other monuments. In 1968 Professor Soekmono, then head of the Archeological Service of Indonesia, launched his "Save Borobudur" campaign, in an effort to organize a massive restoration project. At first glance, Borobudur had been restored to its old glory. The Indonesian government and UNESCO then undertook the complete overhaul in a restoration project between 1975 and 1982.

The restoration project

The response was prompt; as from 1968,  experts from several countries came in turn to carry out on-site studies, in close cooperation with the Archaeological Institute and the various governmental agencies involved.

Embedding concrete and pvc pipe to improve Borobudur's drainage system during the 1973 restoration.
 Source: Guiding Technique Chandi Borobudur arisguide

Chandi Borobudur faced imminent destruction through collapse of the structure and disintegration of the building stones; the only effective way of stopping infiltration and it was by making a complete reconstruction of the monument and introducing a properly – designed drainage system; and that surface treatment of the stone would not arrest the processes of decay but might, on the contrary, cause additional harm.

Over one million stones were dismantled and removed during the restoration, and set aside like pieces of a massive jig-saw puzzle to be individually identified, catalogued, cleaned and treated for preservation. Borobudur became a testing ground for new conservation techniques, including new procedures to battle the microorganisms attacking the stone. The foundation was stabilized, and all 1,460 panels were cleaned. The restoration involved the dismantling of the five square platforms and the improvement of drainage by embedding water channels into the monument. Both impermeable and filter layers were added.

This restoration project involved around 600 people to restore the monument and it cost a total of US$6,901,243. UNESCO gave support and commenced work to raise funds for the restoration. From 1968 to 1983, research through to restoration took place under UNESCO. Specialists from the world over came to assist in the dismantling, and re-engineering of the site. A great deal of work was also done to develop procedures to prevent the microorganisms eating away the stone.

Chandi Borobudur The world's largest Buddhist temple, the greatest Mahayana Buddhist monument in the world. 

Source: Guiding Technique Chandi Borobudur arisguide

conservation Borobudur

UNESCO identified three specific areas of concern under the present state of conservation: (i) vandalism by visitors; (ii) soil erosion in the south-eastern part of the site; and (iii) analysis and restoration of missing elements.

The soft soil, the numerous earthquakes and heavy rains lead to the destabilization of the structure. Earthquakes are by far the most important contributing factors, since do stones fall down and arches crumble, but the earth can move in waves, further destroying the structure. There is no limit the number of visitors allowed per day to visit.

Cleaning the vulcanic dust.
Source: Guiding Technique Chandi Borobudur arisguide

Borobudur was heavily affected by the eruption of Mount Merapi in October and November 2010. Volcanic ash from Merapi fell on the temple complex, which is approximately 28 kilometers (17 mi) west – southwest of the crater. A layer of ash up to 2.5 centimeters (1 in) thick fell on the temple statues during the eruption of 3–5 November, also killing nearby vegetation, with experts fearing that the acidic ash might damage the historic site. The temple complex was closed from 5 to 9 November to clean up the ash fall. UNESCO donated US$3 million   as a part of the costs towards the rehabilitation of Borobudur after Mount Merapi's 2010 eruption. More than 55,000 stone blocks comprising the temple's structure were dismantled to restore the drainage system, which had been clogged by slurry after the rain.

Clean the dust from Merapi
Source: Guiding Technique Chandi Borobudur arisguide

In January 2012, two German stone – conservation experts spent ten days at the site analyzing the temples and making recommendations to ensure their long – term preservation. In June, Germany agreed to contribute $130,000  to UNESCO for the second phase of rehabilitation, in which six experts in stone conservation, microbiology, structural engineering and chemical engineering would spend a week in Borobudur in June then return for  another visit in September or October. These missions would launch the preservation activities recommended in the January report and would include capacity building activities to enhance the preservation capabilities of governmental staff young conservation experts.

In August 2014, the Conservation Authority of Borobudur reported some severe abrasion of the stone stairs caused by the scraping of visitors' footwear. The conservation authority planned to install wooden stairs to cover and protect the original stone stairs, just like those installed in Angkor Wat.

On 14 February 2014, major tourist attractions in Yogyakarta and Central Java, including Borobudur, Prambanan and Ratu Boko, were closed to visitors, after being severely affected by the volcanic ash from the eruption of Kelud volcano in East Java, located around 200 kilometers east from Yogyakarta. Workers covered the iconic stupas and statues of Borobudur temple to protect the structure from volcanic ash. 

Ancient lake

The popular belief in the existence of a processional path does not tally with the hypothesis, put forward by Nieuwenkamp in 1931, that the Kedu plain was once a huge lake. This idea was based on his discovery that the ground – plan of the monument depicted a lotus rosette and petal around a circular flower – bed, while its situation on top of a hill suggested a lotus floating in the air.

Moreover, soundings and leveling indicated  that villages in the area that had names commencing with the word tanjung (‘cape’) are all located just above a common elevation line, 235 m above sea – level. Nieuwenkamp came to the conclusion  that the Kedu plain beneath the 235 m elevation line was once a lake on which the Borobudur monument. ‘floated’. Chandi Pawon and Chandi Mendut were situated on the banks of  the lake. The identification of Chandi Borobudur with a lotus flower floating in the middle of a lake sounds fantastic, but there was in fact a lake near the monument. 

Fierce opposition to Nieuwenkamp’s hypothesis provoked further geological investigations in the area around the monument which produced some further evidence in favor of the hypothesis, though not in regard to the extent of the lake. In thips final conclusion still awaits more extensive and specific research.

identification of Chandi Borobudur with a lotus flower floating on the lake
Source: Guiding Technique Chandi Borobudur arisguide

The identification of Chandi Borobudur with a lotus flower floating in the middle of a lake sounds fantastic, but there was in fact a lake near the monument. Chandi Borobudur originally represented a lotus flower floating on the surface of the lake, the mythical lotus from which the future Buddha will be born.

The name Chandi Borobudur

In the case of most chandi the original name is not known. Often people of nearby villages do not even know of their existence. Much of this cultural heritage had to be rediscovered. No wonder that chandi are simply called after the nearest village. It is very difficult to find out whether Chandi Borobudur is called after the village of the other way about.

In Javanese chronicles of the eighteenth century mention is made of a hill called Borobudur. Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles - ‘discoverer’ of the monument’ - it have been told in 1814 about the existence of a monument called Borobudur in the village of Bumisegoro. Borobudur would therefore seem, in any case, to be the original name. But no ancient document yet found contains this name.

An Old Javanese manuscript of 1365 A.D., called Nagarakrtagama and composed by Mpu Prapancha, mentions ‘Budur’ as a Buddhist sanctuary of the Vajradhara sect. It is not impossible that this ‘Budur’ is to be associated with Borobudur, but the lack of any further information makes a definite identification difficult.

A village in the immediate vicinity still bears the name ‘Bore’– preserving perhaps the first part of the original name of the monument. The compound ‘Boro–Budur’ is hard to explain. To take it as a meaning ‘the Budur sanctuary in the village Boro’ would contradict the rules of the Javanese language, which require that the words be the other way round (Budur Boro instead of Boro Budur). Raffles suggested that ‘Budur’ might correspond to the modern Javanese word ‘Buda’ (ancient); Borobudur would thus mean ‘ancient Boro’. He also put forward another hypothesis: Boro means ‘great’, and Budur stands for ‘Buddha’,  the monument was simply called after the The Great Buddha.

In fact, ‘boro’ should rather mean ‘honourable’, being derived from the Old Javanese ‘bhara’, an honorific prefix, so that ‘the sanctuary of the honourable Buddha’ would be more correct. However, ‘boro’ may also represent the Old Javanese word ‘bhara’, meaning ‘many’ (the modern Javanese word ‘para’, denoting a plural), so the interpretation of ‘Borobudur’ as the sanctuary of ‘The many Buddhas ’ has an equal claim.

The main objection to the above interpretations is that ‘Ancient Boro’, ‘The Great Buddha’, ‘The honourable Buddha’ and ‘The many Buddhas’ offer no explanation of the change of ‘Buddha’ into ‘Budur’. Indeed, there is no way to justify it. An interpretation was proposed by the late Poerbatjaraka. He assumed that the word ‘boro’ stands for ‘biara’, which means ‘monastery’. Borobudur would then mean ‘The monastery of Budur’. Indeed, foundations of a monastery were unearthed during archaeological excavations carried out on the plateau west of the monument in 1952.

As the name ‘Budur’ is mentioned in the book Nagarakrtagama, Poerbatjaraka’s interpretation, it might be right. But if so, all the above explanations are based on interpretations of the composing words ‘Boro’ and ‘Budur’. De Casparis tried tracing both words back to their probable origin. He pointed out that a name ‘Bhumisambharabhudhara’, denoting a sanctuary for ancestor worship, was found on two stone inscriptions dating from 842 A.D.

After a thorough analysis of the religious aspects and a detailed reconstruction of the geography of the area in which historical events took place, he concluded that the sanctuary of Bhumisambhlrabhtidhara could not be other than our Borobudur, and that the change to  the present name occurred through the normal simplification that takes place in a spoken language. Although many scholars object to De Casparis’ explanation, no more  plausible solution has been put forward.

The word ‘boro’ stands for ‘biara’, which means ‘monastery’. ‘boro’ means ‘honourable’, being derived from the Old Javanese ‘bhara’, ‘the sanctuary of the honourable Buddha’.

the name ‘Budur’ is mentioned in the Nagarakrtagama. the monastery stand for the composing words ‘Boro’ and ‘Budur’. Borobudur means ‘The monastery of Budur’.

Moens suggested that - on the analogy of the South-Indian Bharasiwa, denoting the ardent adherents of the Hindu God Siva - our monument was associated with the ‘Bharabuddha’ or zealous upholders of the Buddha. The name ‘Borobudur’ would then be a contraction of ‘Bharabuddha’ with the Tamil word ur for ‘city’ added on, thus meaning ‘The City of the upholders of the Buddha’. However, ‘Bharabuddha’ is a mere hypothetical reconstruction, with no documentary evidence.

Arrangement stupas from Source:
Guiding Technique Chandi Borobudur arisguide

Source: Guidance Technique Candi Borobudur arisguide.